War of Independence 1857 | Causes, Events, Causes of Failure and Effects of War?

CAUSES OF WAR OF INDEPENDENCE-1857 

The mass uprising of the people of Indo Pakistan against the British rule in 1857 was not a spontaneous reaction of alien rule but the eruption of the volcano of discontent that had kept shouldering for about a century. The causes of the War of Independence were: 

• Political 
• Economic 
• Social
• Religious 
• Military 

Political Causes of the War 

The East India Company got strongly implanted in the Sub-continent after its historic victory over Nawab of Bengal in the Battle of Plassey fought in 1757. Soon afterwards in 1764 the British recorded another important triumph in the Battle of Buxar. This time the English defeated the combined forces of Mir Qasim, Nawab of Oudh and the Mughal Emperor. This victory further brightened the prospects of the Company in the country. Later on through skilful diplomacy, the British continued their policy of expansion. By the end of the first half of the 19th century, they succeeded in removing from their way the main hurdles of the lion of Mysore, Tipu Sultan, the Marathas, the Sikhs and the state of Oudh. As a result territorial limits of the British Empire increased at a tremendous pace. By 1857, that is about a hundred years after the battle of Plassey the frontiers of the British territory included provinces like Bengal, Bihar, Oudh, Maysore, Maharashtra, Sindh, Punjab, Kashmir and North West Frontier. W. Hastings (1773-85), Lord Cornwallis (1786-93), Lord Wellesley (1798-1805) and Dalhousie (1848-56) were great annexationists. They annexed many states. 

• Doctrine of Lapse: 

Lord Dalhousie applied Doctrine of Lapse for the expansion of the British Empire. According to this doctrine the rulers of the states were not allowed to adopt sons. As a result, there states were annexed by the company. Lord Dalhousie annexed many states through Doctrine of Lapse which created a great sense of insecurity and among the princes and the general public. 

• Annoyance of Rulers of State:

The policy of ruthless expansion adopted by the British created a lot of bitterness. Lord Dalhousie left no stone unturned for the expansion of the English territory. He annexed states on the grounds of Doctrine of lapse and misgovernment. As such the rulers of the affected states like Sindh, Punjab, Jhansi, and Oudh became sworn enemies of the Company. 

• Confiscation of Estates: 

The nobles were granted large estates by past rulers which served as a source of their honorable living. The British Government reversed this policy and confiscated thousands of such estates. As a result, numberless affected persons turned against the company. That is why, the deposed landlords were the standard bearers of the war of Independence. 

Economic Causes of the War 

The new agrarian policy of the British, destruction of local industry, permanent settlement, large scale unemployment, monopoly of trade by the English and the Stamp Act were some important economic causes of the war. 

• New Agrarian Policy: 

The new agrarian policy of the Government shook the foundations of the village communities. The Zamindars were asked to provide documentary proof of their holdings; otherwise, they were deprived of their lands. The rate of taxes on the lands increased burdening the Zamindars and the cultivators. These steps alienated the majority of the working class from the Government. This class was in the front rank when the war of Independence broke out in 1857. 

• Destruction of Local Industry: 

Due to industrial Revolution of England, cheaper and superior goods flowed into the markets of the sub-continent. The local industry could not complete with the imported stuff and suffered badly. Millions of people were left jobless. This resulted in frustration among the lower classes. 

• Permanent Settlement:

The after effects of the permanent settlement of lands were very disastrous for the landowners. It had fixed the income of the Government but had put the Zamindar under a lot of pressure. They had to deposit regularly a fixed amount which was not always possible. The defaulters were very often degraded and subjected to oppression by the collectors. These acts created a lot of bitterness and discontent among the peasants. 

• Unemployment: 

The British did not trust the Indians. As a result they were not appointed on important jobs and high posts. This policy resulted unemployment for the educated classes. The policy of annexation to the British Empire also left thousands of people jobless. 

• Domination of Trade by the English: 

The British facilitated their trade in Indo-Pakistan. Many seaports were declared fee ports and custom duty on imported goods was withdrawn. These steps ruined the local industry. Imported goods flooded local markets that were cheaper and superior in quality. Consequently the local working class became distressed. 

• Court Fee Stamps: 

The English Government declared court fee compulsory to be paid in the form of court stamps. Thus the people were denied the right of free justice. The general public greatly resented this action. 

Religious Causes 

• Propagation of Christianity:

Although at the outset the English had shown respect towards all religious but with the passage of time, they changed their mind and devised way and means for the propagation of Christianity in Indo-Pakistan. The Government officials often became vocal in their intentions to convert the locals to Christianity. 

The missionaries enjoyed full government support. They were allowed to perform their work at all public places. The Bible was included in the syllabi of various educational institutions. Orphans, widows and distressed people were converted to Christianity. Moreover as act was passed through which the converts were allowed to inherit their ancestral properties. The Indians became suspicious of this act because they thought that this act was passed in order to facilitate conversion to Christianity. It may be interesting to note that even the highest ranked officials did not conceal their efforts of preaching Christianity. To quote Lord Dalhousie: 

Keeping in view all these facts is interesting to note that the leaders of the war of Independence like Nana Sahib, Rani of Jhansi, Maharaja Peshwa Bahadur and Bahadur Shah Zafar called upon the people to defend their faith against the propagation of Christianity.

• Introduction of New Inventions: 

In the mid of the 19th Century, the British introduced in Indo-Pakistan many inventions like railway, post and telegraph. Moreover they made English as medium of education. These inventions made the Indians suspicious of the intentions of the British. They considered these inventions as moves of some ulterior motives on the part of the rulers. 

• Jehad Movement: 

In 1826, Syed Ahmed Shaheed launched the Jehad Movement second. It was a sort of large-scale effort by the Muslims to snatch freedom from alien rule. After their initial successes at Akora and Hazru, the Mujahdeens were defeated at the Balakot in 1831. The Jehad Movement though failed to achieve immediate aims yet it succeeded in kindling a flame of freedom which served as a beacon of inspiration for the coming generations. 

• Anti-Religion Laws: 

The British Government enacted many laws which were contradictory to the fundamentals of various religions of Indo-Pakistan. For example, rape was declared a civil offence. It greatly aroused the feeling of the Muslims. Similarly the widow remarriage act offended Hindu religion sentiments. The abolition of the age-old Hindu custom of Sati produced the same results. 

Social Causes 

• Mockery of Cultural heritage: 

The British considered the Muslims as their archenemy in the sub-continent because the Muslims had been the rulers of the country in the recent past. The British were afraid of the Muslim cultural heritage which was very rich in all aspects. The English wanted to prove their culture as superior to others. Thus they adopted a policy of ridiculing the Muslim culture. This attitude greatly agitated Muslim religious feelings. 

• Insulting Treatment with the People:

A hundred year rule over the sub-continent had given the English as air of superiority. They considered themselves a super creation and often resorted to insulting attitude towards the people of the sub-continent. The company adhered to a policy of racial discrimination which prefered white over the black. The people of Indo-Pakistan were greatly agitated by this attitude. 

Military Causes 

• Disbanded Armies of Annexed States 

The Company annexed many states to the British Empire under ' Doctrine of Lapse ' and misgovernment. The British disbanded the armies of the annexed states resulting in thousands of unemployed local soldiers. Consequently a number of families were rendered economically distressed. These policies created a class which wanted to get rid of the British rule. 

• Dearth of English troops: 

In the middle of the 19th century most of the British troops were stationed in Punjab where they were deployed during and after the conquest of Punjab. Similarly the Crimean War had ended in 1856 but the English troops had not returned yet. Eventually the number of troops in Bengal and central parts of the country was very small but the ratio of the Indian troops had increased in the company Army which titled the balance in favour of the natives and they were encouraged to launch the War of Independence. 

• Greased cartridges: 

The use of greased cartridges proved as the immediate cause of the war. It was rumored that the cartridges were greased with the fat of the cow or pig. This situation agitated the religious feelings of both the Muslim and Hindu soldiers and created widespread discontent among the native soldiers. Keeping with their religious beliefs they refused to use these cartridges. 

EVENTS OF THE WAR

The first incident of the war took place on 26th February 1857 when the native soldiers of the 19th Native Infantry at Behrampur refused to use the greased cartridges. Then on 19th march 1857, Mangal Pande a native soldier of the 34th native infantry fired at his British officers. His fellows did not join him. As a result he was caught and hanged. However, all the 34th native infantry was disbanded on 6th May 1857. The war was triggered on 10 May 1857 and the flames of war soon spread to all parts of the country. Meerat, Delhi, Lucknow, Baraille, Kanpur and Jhansi were the prominent centers of the struggle for independence. 

The freedom fighters of Meerat reached Delhi and occupied the city without any resistance. They placed Bahadur Shah Zafar the last Mughal Emperor on the throne. The British faced much difficulty. They appealed to the Sikhs of Punjab for assistance. The Sikhs joined hands with the British to fight against the Muslims. Bahadur Shah Zafar was deposed and deported to Rangoon forever. The 24 Mughal princes were shot dead. 

Causes of Failure of War 

The war of independence of 1857 failed to achieve its immediate political objectives. Following were the causes of this failure. 

• Lack of Leadership and Discipline: 

The freedom fighters fought mostly in independent groups at different places led by leaders of their particular regions. There was no leader who could single handed lead all the groups. The revolutionaries lacked discipline. Thus their efforts could not get the required momentum. 

• Lack of Unity: 

There was no unity among the freedom fighters. They fought independent of one another. As a result they could not assemble their resources against a common enemy. They were defeated at different places. On the other hand the British fought the war of their survival with dedication and purpose. 

• Lack of Resources: 

The freedom fighter lacked resources of all types. They were short of equipment and food stuffs. They had to face well equipped and well well organized enemy. The Mughal Emperor had no treasury to support the war. 

• Lack of Popular Support: 

The War of Independence never assumed the shape of a concerted national struggle. It lacked popular support. Although it spread to various parts of the country yet some places did not take part in the war i.e. Swat, Peshawar, Kohat, Layyah, Multan.

• Superior Technology of English Troops: 

The British troops fought with latest weapons. They had the backing of the latest technology. There were also led by capable and experienced generals.

• Non-Cooperation of the Rulers of the State: 

The rulers of different states of Indian sub-continent Pakistan did not come to help the freedom fighters. Thus the War remained confined to a few centers.

• Non-Cooperation of Sikhs of Punjab: 

The Sikhs of Punjab considered the Muslims as their traditional enemies. They decided to support the British in the War of Independence. The Sikh soldiers played a decisive role in the recovery of Delhi from the freedom fighters. 

• Role of traitors: 

The British succeeded in finding traitors in the ranks of the freedom fighters. Maulvi Rajab Ali and Hakeem Ehsan Ullah below off the royal ammunition depot at Delhi. Thus the revolutionaries suffered a great set back. 

• Return of British Troops from Crimea: 

The War of Crimea ended in 1856. The British troops fighting there were free to return to the sub-continent. The War of Independence started in 1857. In the beginning the Company had to depend on the few soldiers present in the country. But soon afterwards the surplus troops from Crimea poured into Indo-Pakistan. These troops were experienced and equipped with latest weapons. The balance of war titled in favor of the English. The freedom fighters fighting without formidable resources could not avoid the inevitable defeat for long. 

Effects of War of Independence

The War of Independence 1857 despite its failure changed the entire political, social and economic outlook of the sub-continent. The British were forced to revive their policy. Some important effects of the war were as under. 

• Immediately after the war, through the Queen's Proclamation of 1858, the crown took over the control from the East India Company. Lord canning the last Governor General of the East India Company became the first Viceroy of the British Government in India. Consequently the Indians were placed on equality with the subjects of the British crown. 
• The British Government abolished the Doctrine of Lapse. 
• The policy of annexations was totally abandoned. Rulers of the states were guaranteed  that there would be no more annexations. 
• After the War the number of European soldiers was increased in sub-continent. It is estimated that there were 65,000 European soldiers against 14,000 native soldiers. The army was reorganized into separate regiments. The artillery was totally put under the control of Europeans. 
• One ugly effect of the war of Independence was that the English subjected the Muslims to oppression. The British considered Muslims responsible for the War of Independence. Accordingly the head of repression fell more heavily on the Muslims than on the Hindus. Many of the leading Muslims were hanged or exiled. 
• As a result of the War the British Government changed its agrarian policy in Indo-Pakistan. The permanent Settlement of Bengal was reconsidered. The land owners were provided safeguards. 
• After the War the British wrath was directed at the Muslims. The properties of the Muslims were confiscated and they were subjected to all sorts of terror and repression. The British adopted a discriminatory policy towards the Hindus and the Muslims. The Hindus were given preference over the Muslims. Soon a wide gulf between the two communities assumed dangerous proportions. 
• The failure of the War of Independence War encouraged the Christian missionaries to resume the propagation of their religion with new vigor and assurance.